FOREWORD

Prejudices, misinformation and incorrect assessments are the underlying factors of the accusations brought against Turkey for years in the international platforms. The unjust criticism directed against Turkey in various fields result from omni lateral actions that are taken without the required research on. the events of the past and investigation of the archives and publications. The approach of the world public opinion to the Armenian question is the work of those circles that do not have an objective point of view regarding said question. These circles have exerted efforts to make Turkey unrightful in issues on which it is rightful and to make Turkey guilty in issues that it is innocent.

Turkey is in the position of a bridge, extending to the west, for the regions in which the most significant problems of today's world are encountered, and disputes and hot conflicts are confronted in a concentrated manner. Whereas tolerance, justice, peace and comfort ruled the region for centuries, under sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards however, people of different religions, languages, and race could not achieve a real peace on the same land. How the people of numerous ethnic origins and religions lived together in peace, despite their diversity within the borders of the Ottoman State, which was a World Empire extending to three continents, is a matter of curiosity for the world's leading historians and scientists, who have researched the Ottoman history.

The major states of the era have not only shown tolerance to elimination, forced immigration and seizure of the goods of the Turkish population by the people whom they had incited to revolt with the promises of independence in order to remove the Turks from the Balkans, but also have not abstained from causing a conflict and initiating a war between said people either, after the Turks have retreated. Despite the fact that everyone knows that Turks have been the ones who had been killed and raped without discrimination of women, children and the elders and the ones,whose houses had been burnt and destructed, goods had been seized and the ones that have been exiled from their country, a propaganda on the contrary has been conducted and Turks have been blamed with a caution to mislead the facts to the favor of others.

Just as it has been in the past, in addition to not permitting Turkey express itself and express opinions with regards to problems that it has been subjected to, access of the true information to the world public opinion was prevented with various methods.

Thus, this study that we have realized, briefly aims at examining the minorities and the Armenian question in the Ottoman Empire, research the issue from the point of view of foreign authors, historians and statesmen and to convey not only the replies of the Turks to the foreign sources accusing the Turks, but also the opinions of the scientists with opinions on the contrary.

I- MINORITIES IN THE OTTOMAN STATE

The concept of minority is derived from the Latin term minor and is defined as the communities that are different from that of their country of residence in terms of culture, ethnic origin or racial characteristics.

The Ottoman State has sheltered several religions and has granted minority status to every religion and sect other than Islam and has defined said groups as "Nation". Thus, the Ottoman society consisted of the main elements namely, Muslims and Non-Muslims. Within this framework, the Orthodox, Armenians, Catholics, Jews, Protestants have taken place among the non-Muslim communities called "Nation".

The Zsitva-Torok Treaty of 1606 has been the first international treaty signed by the Ottoman State on the minorities. With this Treaty, the Catholics have been granted the freedom to found churches and to worship on the Ottoman lands. With the Karlowitz Treaty signed in 1699, the Ambassador of Poland has been granted the authority to apply to the Ottoman Ruler with regards to the problems of the Catholics and with the treaties of Passarowitz of 1718, Belgrade of 1739, Kuchuk Kaainardji of 1774 the foreigners have been granted the right of intervention into the internal affairs of the Ottoman State with regards to minorities. On the other hand, with the signing of the Kuchuk Kaainardji Treaty in 1774, the Orthodox have been included into the field of protection, which was only applicable for the Catholics until that date.

In addition to fulfillment of all religious custom and usage of the respective sect by every non-Muslim, they have been granted the immunity with regards to sacred grounds and temples in the Ottoman Empire. Moreover, besides the non-intervention into the government and internal function of the places of worship, the governments thereof have been granted strictly to the communities.

Acceptance of the Jews, Greek and the Armenian as an individual community and granting of an autonomous status were realized after the Turks had conquered Istanbul. Sultan Mohammed the Conqueror, has recognized said communities as nations and granted the right of electing their own leaders, continuing their laws and protecting their institutions. Firstly, he has authorized election of the new patriarch, Gennadios by the Greeks and granted the title of leader of said community and provided freedom to the Patriarchy in its religious and administrative affairs. Moreover he has issued a firman for continuation of all previous practices and affiliated the Rumanian, Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek churches to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchy. Furthermore, he has ensured settlement often thousands of Armenians at Istanbul by inviting the Armenians to Istanbul from their region and the Armenian population has consequently reached 150 000 as of the year 1880. On the other hand, he has ensured the opening of the Armenian Patriarchy by inviting the Clerical Leader of the Armenian Church to Istanbul.

The Ottoman State has claimed not only those within its borders but those who were under pressure and who have been subjected to injustice in countries outside its borders; brought in groups of Jews, who were forced to becoming Catholic in Hungary in 1376, France in 1394 and Spain in 1492 and had these groups settled in various cities of the Empire. Moreover, the Jews escaping from the cruelty and pressure imposed by Russians were settled in different regions within the Ottoman Empire, namely in Jerusalem as of the year 1882.

The last minority community that was recognized as a Nation in the Ottoman history was the Protestants. A statute was enacted in 1878 in order to determine the organization structure of this community.

The Islamic law and the traditional good will and tolerance of the Turks have contributed greatly to the determination of the legal status of the minorities with different ethnic origins, religious beliefs, languages and cultures, living on the lands of the Ottoman Empire.

The administrative approach and the law system in the Ottoman State were based on the concepts of "Ruling Nation", completely consisting of Moslems and "Condemned Nation" prior to the Gulhane Finnan of 1839, which constitutes the beginning of the Period of Reforms. Despite this, however, the prerequisite to becoming a grand vizier and vizier was being a Moslem and being Turkish was not compulsory. Whereas, the Ruling Nation approach displayed itself in the form of racial superiority or common thought in all major states, contemporary with the Ottoman Empire.

While the Firmans of the Sultan determined the rights and the governing organizations of the non-Moslem nations prior to the Reforms, enactment of statutes have been initiated in the period thereafter. Said statutes were elaborated'in the form of legal securities that provided the possibility of conducting their own administrative organizations and activities to each nation. On the other hand, despite the necessity of submission of the candidates of the Greek Patriarchy to' the approval of the Ottoman Government, this condition was not applicable for the candidates of Armenian Patriarchy and Chief Rabbi of the Jews. The reason for granting of such a privilege especially to the Armenians, extends from the fact that they were considered as a "Loyal Nation" and were given separate value.

While the non-Moslems paid a tax called "cizye" and did not fulfill their military service, though it has been announced numerous times in the Constitutional Monarchy period that "cizye" would be abolished and that non-Moslems shall be recruited, said decisions have not been implemented due to the objections of the non-Moslems and significant discussions have emerged. The most important reason for objection against the military service was based on their fear of loosing the superiority they had gained over numerous fields of the economy, especially in trade and crafts. Recruitment of the non-Moslem to the military was realized after the Constitution of 1908 for the first time in Turkish history.

The most significant rules that were imposed on the non-Moslems have taken place in the agenda in the matters of clothing and costumes. For example shoes and hats of blue for the Jews, black for the Rumanian and red for the Armenians were made compulsory. Yellow was determined as the color of the Moslems. Another significant rule that was compulsory for the non-Moslems was the prohibition of involvement in politics. Again the sentence for offences committed against the state was made severe to the extent of death penalty. Constitution of the 1st National Assembly, opened in 18 March 1877, consisting of people from different languages, sects and languages is the best indicator of the respect and freedoms vested in the minorities. The fact that there has never been a parliament consisting of representatives of 11 different religions and sects and 18 languages in the major states of the era, displays in the best manner, the difference between the Ottoman Empire and those wishing to disintegrate it. Ottoman Empire, which restricted its authority with military, finance and administration has vested the affairs of education, communication, justice, population and religion in the establishments and associations that have been organized on the basis of religion and sects and grasnted the right of hearing the cases related with marriage, divorce, alimony and inheritance again in the courts of the communities. The decisions awarded by such courts were imposed by the state organs and said courts have been authorized to sentence people to exile and condemnation to galleys in addition to imprisonment. The vital records of the communities were kept in patriarchies and again the death and birth records were realized by the patriarchies. With regards to education, the non-Moslem communities were granted the right of opening their own schools and setting their curriculum.

With the Period of Reforms, the concept of nation based on religion was abolished i.e. the period of Ruling Nation was terminated and equality of the citizens approach was adopted on the base of the idea of Ottomans. Thus, all ranks and offices have been opened to the Condemned Nation and non-Moslems becoming senior bureaucrats and civil servants at posts such as ministers, undersecretaries, ambassadors, consulates, governors, inspectors was made possible. Moreover, while it was impossible for the non-Moslems to testify against the Moslems previously, in the Period of Reforms the non-Moslems were granted the right of jurisdiction over the Moslems in the form of court membership.

On the contrary to the beliefs, the Period of Reforms could not ensure an equality in terms of all elements of the Ottoman and led to a new situation against the Moslems. Accordingly, the non-Moslems have gained power by means of developments in both trade and education due to the possibility of benefiting from all rights on the one hand and being exempt from the military service on the other.

In the Period of Reforms, the rights granted to the non-Moslems in the previous period were conserved in addition to the new rights and the non-Moslems who had been organized all- over the Ottoman lands and who conducted nearly all of their affairs through their own assemblies, conducted their relations through their own institutions and leaders such as Patriarchs and Chief Rabbis rather than the State.

Following the Period of Reforms, the concept of citizenship was adopted and everyone living on the lands of the Ottoman Empire were subjected to the same rules of law without a discrimination of Moslem and non-Moslem.

With his words, "Only distinction that I see among my subjects is that Moslems are in the Mosques, Christians are in the Churches and Jews are in the Synagogues. There is no other difference between them. All are subject to my affection and justice, and all are my own children." Sultan Mahmud the II. has emphasized that there is no discrimination in the Ottoman State government between the Moslems and the non-Moslems and that equality existed in all other areas.

As a result of the numerous legal amendments realized after the Period of Reforms, certain prohibitions and restrictions imposed by the Islamic law on the non-Moslem were abolished and thus, having acquired a complete equality, the non-Moslems have gained a more privileged status than the Moslems after they found a way to benefit from the capitulations; and acquired the right of being represented at the parliament and provincial assemblies by utilizing their political rights in convenient manner.

In conclusion, the non-Moslems have protected their identities without being subjected to assimilation with the autonomy granted to them in significant fields such as education, worship and family law. While the Moslems constituted the largest community in the Ottoman Empire, the Greeks were the second and Armenians were the third largest community in the population. The non-Moslems constituted a larger population in Istanbul, the capital city of the Empire, in comparison to the Moslems and again Istanbul has become a city in which a high number of foreigners resided. The breakdown of the population in terms of communities in the Ottoman Empire between 1906-1914 is given in the following table.

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